Understanding the effect of milk composition and milking season on quality characteristics of chhana.

The quality characteristics of chhana varied due to the milk composition (cow-, buffalo-, and mixed- milk) which in turn was affected by the milking season (summer and winter). Upon heating and acidification of milk samples water holding phenomena and denatured protein association within and with other components lead to variation in both macroscale properties (color, texture, and rheology) and molecular bonding patterns (FTIR character). Yield, lightness (L* value), textural firmness, and elastic modulus of chhana increased with increasing proportion of buffalo milk in mixed milk due to higher total solids and less moisture content in both the seasons. Total protein, fat, water, and interaction between them and extent of hydrogen bonding significantly affected the rheological and textural properties of chhana samples.

Status of pulse milling processes and technologies: A review.

Pulses are essential component of the human diet in the underdeveloped and the developing countries. Pulse milling mainly focuses on complete removal of the hull with minimum generation of powder, broken, and in certain cases dehulled split formation. Physical and mechanical properties of different pulses are described and their role in dehulling is discussed in this review. The review discusses nature of gums that binds hull and cotyledons together and their effect on milling characteristics. Pitting operation is performed for all pulses prior to the pretreatment for better dehulling. Various pretreatment processes (soaking, edible oils, chemicals, enzymes, hydrothermal) developed to loosen the bond are examined for their dehulling efficacy from commercial application viewpoint. Dependence of dehulling characteristics of different pulses on size, shape, variety, grain hardness, and moisture content are discussed. Most of the machines developed for pulses dehulling in India are abrasion based emery-cylinder concave system. The studies done for optimization of different pretreatment process conditions are also reviewed. The losses taking place in the form of broken and powder during pulse milling are described. Methods for performance evaluation of the pulse dehulling system are reviewed and expressions are suggested for proper evaluation. This review gives complete overview of the processes and technological status of pulse milling in present context.